According to Roediger and Mcdermott, What Test Should Sarah Perform Worst on?
Introduction
Age-related stereotypes are very present in our environment and our daily lives. Research shows that both young and older adults share many positive and negative perceptions and stereotypes about aging (e.g., Hummert et al., 1994; Grühn et al., 2011). However, people'south representations of older adults are more imbued with negative perceptions than those of younger adults (e.g., Kite et al., 2005; Hummert, 2011). The effects of negative age-related stereotypes on older adults' episodic memory performance take been regularly highlighted in the literature. Several studies have shown that older participants previously subliminally exposed to negative age-related stereotypes performed worse in retentivity tasks than older adults exposed to positive age-related stereotypes or non-exposed to historic period-related stereotypes (e.m., Hess et al., 2004; Levy, 2009). In other studies, researchers observed that retentivity performance of participants aged 60 and over was worse (and the age-related departure increased) when the retention component of the job was emphasized than when it was non (e.g., Rahhal et al., 2001; Chasteen et al., 2005; Desrichard and Köpetz, 2005). In such laboratory conditions, older adults may perceive and experience what Steele and Aronson (1995, p. 797) called the stereotype threat, i.eastward., "being at risk of confirming, as cocky-characteristic, a negative stereotype about i's group."
A growing body of research has shown that an induced historic period-based stereotype threat impairs older adults' performance in a large variety of cognitive tasks (eastward.g., Hairdresser and Mather, 2014; Lamont et al., 2015; Hairdresser, 2017) such as episodic memory (run into Armstrong et al., 2017 for a recent meta-analysis on this topic). Several hypotheses have been proposed to explicate these effects relying either on cerebral or on motivational mechanisms. Co-ordinate to the executive control interference hypothesis (Schmader and Johns, 2003), the stereotype threat takes up cognitive resources, thereby increasing the cerebral load placed upon the cognitive organization (specially upon working memory), which induces a performance subtract. Recent results showing a deleterious effect of an age-based stereotype threat on older adults' associative memory (Brubaker and Naveh-Benjamin, 2018) or the employ of controlled processes while strengthening the utilise of automatic processes (Mazerolle et al., 2012) offer support to this cognitive hypothesis. The motivational caption is based on the regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997). Enquiry suggests that when participants perform a memory chore under a stereotype threat, they adopt a prevention focus, go more than vigilant to errors and effort to avoid committing errors as much as possible (see Barber, 2017 for an all-encompassing presentation; Seibt and Förster, 2004; as opposed to a promotion focus leading participants to remember every bit many words as possible whatever the number of errors they would make). This motivational hypothesis finds support in studies showing a decrease in correct recalls and/or a decrease in memory errors (e.k., Hess et al., 2003, 2009; Barber and Mather, 2013a,b; Popham and Hess, 2015; Barber, 2017).
One type of retentiveness errors that is likely to exist affected by an historic period-based stereotype threat is imitation memory. Faux memories are usually defined as distorted memories of events that occurred or memories of events that did not happen (Roediger and McDermott, 1995) and are associated with loftier levels of certitude. Ane of the most widely used paradigm to study individuals' susceptibility to false memories is the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM; Deese, 1959; Roediger and McDermott, 1995) paradigm, in which participants study lists of semantically related words (e.thousand., bed, awake, tired, dream, etc.) strongly associated with a critical lure that is never presented (e.g., sleep), before being asked to recognize and/or recall every bit many words as possible without guessing. Participants oft wrongly retrieve or recognize critical lures, thus making false memories. A large amount of studies has focused on factors influencing the occurrence of imitation memories. Research has shown that factors, such as historic period (e.g., Tun et al., 1998; Dehon and Brédart, 2004), positive and high arousing moods (e.chiliad., Storbeck and Clore, 2005; Corson and Verrier, 2007; Storbeck and Clore, 2011), cognitive manner (due east.g., Corson et al., 2009), stress (Payne et al., 2002), the apply of long rather than short DRM lists (east.g., Robinson and Roediger, 1997), or a relational rather than an particular-specific processing during encoding (e.g., Chase and Einstein, 1981), increase the occurrence of false memories.
To our knowledge, just 3 studies investigated the effects of an induced age-based related stereotype threat on older adults' propensity to false memories (Thomas and Dubois, 2011; Wong and Gallo, 2016; Smith et al., 2017), but these studies did not yield whatever consensual results. In these studies, participants were first presented with DRM lists, and then some of them were exposed to a breathy historic period-based stereotype threat induction (by reading short paragraphs on age-related cerebral decline), and finally performed a recognition task. Thomas and Dubois (2011) observed that adults aged between 60 and 74 years were more than inclined to falsely recognize critical lures in the age-based stereotype condition than in the control condition (reading a short text on language processing after encoding DRM lists). No significant effects of the age-based stereotype threat were found on hits. On the contrary, Wong and Gallo (2016) establish that older adults (65–87 years) exposed to an age-based stereotype threat consecration made fewer imitation alarms on the critical lures than their counterparts in the control condition who read an age-neutral text on language research. However, it is worth noting that Wong and Gallo (2016) had included a DRM alarm before the participants performed the recognition task. Participants were informed that some of the words in the recognition task were strongly associated with words they had studied only that these words were not included in the initial list. Participants were then told to avert confusion betwixt those words and the words they had studied. As this warning may partly explicate the contradictory results, and in an attempt to explicate the discrepancies between Thomas and Dubois (2011) and Wong and Gallo (2016) studies, Smith et al. (2017) chose to include four experimental atmospheric condition combining the presence or the absence of an age-based stereotype threat and the presence or the absence of a DRM alarm. This warning was presented before the recognition chore and consisted of a brusk text explaining the principles of the DRM prototype, i.e., that studied words were all related to another word that is often falsely remembered by participants. Participants aged 56–xc years thus performed a DRM associated with a recognition test in one of the 4 experimental conditions. Consistent with the results of Thomas and Dubois (2011), they showed that older adults exposed to negative historic period-related stereotypes made more simulated recognition of critical lures than older adults non-exposed to negative historic period-related stereotypes and did not replicate the results obtained in Wong and Gallo (2016). Interestingly, Smith et al. (2017) likewise highlighted the moderating role of several factors such as years of education and retirement status. They showed that older adults' susceptibility to false recognitions (false memories) increases under the stereotype threat fifty-fifty more in retired or highly educated participants.
Armstrong et al. (2017) also investigated the potential moderator effects of didactics, age, and blazon of retention tests. In their meta-analysis comprising studies using blatant or subtle (eastward.thou., non-direct advice of memory decline) stereotype threat manipulation, they concluded that neither the years of didactics nor the age chastened the clan between the historic period-based stereotype threat and the episodic memory operation in older adults. They also showed that the age-based stereotype threat issue was significant in free recall tasks but non in cued-recollect or recognition tasks. This is consistent with the idea that, in addition to aging, a stereotype threat reduces the ability to use strategic processes leading to larger retentiveness impairments in older adults (e.g., Craik and McDowd, 1987; Mazerolle et al., 2012).
The objective of the present written report was to investigate the moderator role of years of pedagogy on the relationship between the perceived age-based stereotype threat and the production of false memories in older adults. Dissimilar previous studies on false memories, we chose not to induce a stereotype threat but to appraise instead the older adults' perceived stereotype threat (PST) when performing such a DRM task. This allowed us to be closer to natural situations of memory test that older adults encounter (e.g., Rahhal et al., 2001; Brubaker and Naveh-Benjamin, 2018). Besides, since the age-based stereotype threat is known to be higher under difficult tasks (e.g., Steele and Aronson, 1995), nosotros decided to present adults aged 60–70 years with a DRM chore associated with a free recall task. First, we expected older adults to correctly recall fewer words as the perception of stereotype threat increases. We also expected the relationship betwixt participants' perception of stereotype threat and right recalls to increment with the participants' level of education. Second, regarding false memories, we expected older adults to produce more critical lures every bit their perception of a stereotype threat increases. In line with Smith et al. (2017), we expected this relationship to exist moderated past instruction. The relationship between participants' perception of a stereotype threat and the production of critical lures should be stronger as instruction increases.
Materials and Methods
Participants
80-two older adults (60–seventy years, M = 64.65 years, SD = three.xv, 54% female) were recruited in senior centers and community domicile homes in the area of Nantes. Participants were all native French speakers; they received no compensation for their participation. All participants gave their informed consent before their inclusion in the study. Global cognitive efficiency was assessed using the French version of the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE; Derouesné et al., 1999). All older adults scored equal or college than 26 on the MMSE; results indicated a preserved global cognitive functioning (Chiliad = 28.74, SD = 1.18) in our participants. The French version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1993) revealed no signs of trait-anxiety in our sample (MDState = 29.84, SDState = 8.62; GTrait = 37.09, SDTrait = 8.56). Participants likewise completed a demographic questionnaire comprising questions regarding the highest diploma they got, the historic period until which they have been to schoolhouse, and their current or erstwhile occupation. These items were used to compute the Education variable, which is divers as the number of years of instruction since the historic period of vi (equally instruction was mandatory from the age of 6 in France at the time). Overall, our participants reported a mean of 12.72 years of education (SD = 3.12). Participant characteristics are presented in Tabular array ane.
Tabular array i. Participant characteristics: means, SD, and Pearson correlations with confidence intervals.
An ethics blessing was not required for this study every bit per institutional and national guidelines and regulations. However, the report was carried out in accordance with Academy of Nantes ethics guidelines and the French law no. 2004-801 of Baronial half dozen, 2004 relating to the protection of the natural persons with regard to the processing of personal information and alteration law no. 78-17 of Jan 6, 1978 relating to data, files, and freedoms. Ethics was checked at the laboratory level. Participation in the research was voluntary, and the data were collected anonymously in accord with the Annunciation of Helsinki (Earth Medical Clan, 2013). Participants were informed that they could receive a written document explaining the primary results of the study upon asking.
Materials
Perception of Stereotype Threat
Participants' stereotype threat perception was assessed with two items drawn from Gaillard et al. (2011). Participants rated their level of agreement with each of the two statements ("I worry that my power to perform well on this examination is affected by my age" and "I worry that if I perform poorly on this test, the experimenter will attribute my poor performance to my age") using a seven-indicate scale ranging from "i-strongly disagree" to "vii-strongly hold." As responses to these two statements were highly correlated (r = 0.66, p < 0.001), we computed one averaged score of PST.
DRM Task
The textile used in the present study consisted of half-dozen DRM lists, each comprising xv words, drawn from Corson and Verrier (2007). We created two orders of presentation of the half dozen DRM lists and counterbalanced them across participants.
Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1.
Procedure
Participants were tested individually in a unmarried session that lasted approximately twoscore min. After giving their informed consent, participants completed the MMSE, the demographic questionnaire, the state-anxiety questionnaire, and so the DRM task. The DRM lists were presented orally by the experimenter, i at a fourth dimension, at a charge per unit of one discussion every 1.5 due south. Immediately afterwards each list presentation, participants were given xc due south maximum to perform an oral free recall task. Participants were told that the experimenter was more interested in the type of words (quality of the recall) than in the number of words they recall (quantity of the recall). Immediately after the DRM job, participants assessed their perception of stereotype threat and then their level of trait-feet. At the end of the session, participants were fully debriefed and thanked for their participation.
Results
The results are presented in the next 3 sections. We showtime examined the correlations between all the variables taken into business relationship in our study. 2nd, nosotros examined the moderator function of education on the human relationship between PST and the correct recalls. Finally, we investigated the moderating role of education on the human relationship between PST and false memories product (production of critical lures). Statistical analyses were performed using R software (Version 3.half dozen.0; R Core Team, 2019) and JASP (Version 0.xiii.i; JASP Squad, 2020).
Correlation Analyses
The analysis revealed that Education was negatively and significantly correlated with Historic period merely positively and significantly correlated with global cognitive efficiency assessed with the MMSE. Higher levels of pedagogy were associated with higher global cognitive efficiency and younger age. As expected, the two measures of state‐ and trait-anxiety were positively and significantly correlated. In improver, proportions of correct recalls in the DRM task were significantly and positively correlated with Education and global cerebral efficiency but negatively with Historic period. No other significant correlation was establish (see Table 1).
Correct Recalls
Nosotros conducted a regression analysis to investigate both the role of PST as a predictor of the proportion of correct recalls and the moderating role of Educational activity on the proportions of correct recalls in the DRM job (come across Table 2).
Table 2. Hierarchical regression analyses for variables predicting the proportion of correct recalls.
Beginning, PST and Education were introduced as predictors of the proportion of correct recalls (Model 1). The analysis yielded a pregnant main issue of Education (b = 0.01, p = 0.001, sr 2 = 0.00). When the interaction between Instruction and PST was added to the model, the results indicated that 19% of the variance of the correct recalls is related to the model (p < 0.001). More precisely, Education was the simply meaning predictor of the proportion of right recalls (b = 0.01, p = 0.002, sr 2 = 0.11). Neither the PST (b = −0.01, p = 0.235) nor the Didactics × PST interaction (b = 0.01, p = 0.068) predicted the proportion of correct recalls (Model 2).
Finally, we added Age, MMSE, State-, and Trait-Anxiety to the previous model as controlled variables (Model iii). The overall fit increases significatively (R two = 0.401, p < 0.001; ΔR 2 = 0.209, p < 0.001) and MMSE became the merely significant predictor (b = 0.04, p < 0.001, sr 2 = 0.xv) offsetting the effect of Education (b = 0.01, p = 0.176, sr 2 = 0.02).
Faux Memories
Nosotros conducted a regression analysis to investigate both the role of PST as a predictor of the proportion of critical lures produced and the moderating role of Pedagogy on the proportions of critical lures produced in the DRM job (see Table iii).
Table 3. Hierarchical regression analyses for variables predicting the proportion of critical lures.
Showtime, PST and Education were introduced equally predictors of the proportion of critical lures. The analysis yielded no significant chief consequence (Model 1). When the interaction between Education and PST was introduced, the results indicated that the model predicted 8% of the total variance (p = 0.078). More precisely, neither the PST (b = 0.01, p = 0.455, sr ii = 0.01) nor the Didactics (b = −0.01, p = 0.364, sr 2 = 0.01) predicted the proportion of critical lures (Model 2). However, results indicated a moderating role of Pedagogy with viii% of the full variance associated with the PST × Education interaction (b = 0.01, p = 0.013, sr 2 = 0.08); the relation between PST and the production of critical lures depends on an individual'due south teaching level.
When Historic period, MMSE, Country-, and Trait-Feet were entered in the previous model every bit controlled variables, the overall fit of the model increases nonsignificantly (R two = 0.11, p = 0.238; ΔR 2 = 0.031, p = 0.638), simply PST × Education interaction nonetheless was the only significant predictor (b = 0.01, p = 0.020, sr two = 0.07) confirming the moderating role of Education on the relationship between PST and the product of critical lures (Model three).
One style to visualize and summarize but the chastened issue of Education is to follow the Johnson-Neyman technique (Johnson and Fay, 1950). From Model ii in Tabular array 3, we used this technique to determine the education level intervals in which the human relationship betwixt PST and the proportion of critical lures is significant or not significant (see Effigy one). When the level of education is between 6.ix and xv.viii years, the relationship between PST and the proportion of critical lures is non significant; when the level is to a higher place 15.8 years, an increase in PST is significantly related to an increase in the proportion of critical lures, and when the level is beneath half-dozen.9 years, an increase in PST is significantly related to a decrease in the proportion of critical lures. For instance, for the higher educated group (>16 years), the slope of PST on the proportion of disquisitional lures is greater than b = 0.06 (and significant). One should note, still, that lower levels of Educational activity such every bit 6.9 years and less are scarce in adults now aged from 60 and over.
Figure ane. Representation of the slope of perceived stereotype threat on the product of disquisitional lures according to the level of teaching. The range of observed values of Education is [8.00, xx.00].
Discussion
The present study was aimed at identifying the moderating role of education on the human relationship between the perceived age-based stereotype threat and false retentivity. Every bit expected, our results showed that the production of disquisitional lures was best predicted by the PST × Instruction interaction. To our knowledge, this is the first study that shows an increase of false memories' production in highly educated older adults as their perception of an age-based stereotype threat increases, without relying on whatsoever experimental stereotype threat manipulation. Our results are consistent with previous research that has shown that highly educated older adults are more susceptible to false memories (Smith et al., 2017) nether the induced stereotype threat. These results support the thought that highly educated individuals may place a high value on their retentiveness and experience especially threatened by age-based stereotypes in such a false retentivity task. Consistent with the cognitive hypothesis (Schmader and Johns, 2003), they may engage virtually of their cerebral resources in guild to distance themselves from the stereotype, thereby leaving only few resources to correctly perform the job. The increase of false memories in these highly educated participants along with the increase of their perception of an age-based stereotype threat is besides consistent with the increase of simulated alarms observed by Brubaker and Naveh-Benjamin (2018) in adults aged 65 and over nether the stereotype threat and the increment of false memories showed by Thomas and Dubois (2011) and Smith et al. (2017). This is particularly interesting since, in dissimilarity to well-nigh previous studies, we did not utilize experimental stereotype threat consecration. This suggests that naturally occurring stereotype threat in testing situations (e.g., Brubaker and Naveh-Benjamin, 2018) may take every bit deleterious effects on cognitive performance as an induced stereotype threat.
The literature shows that the occurrence of false memories is usually the result of global, heuristic, relational, familiarity-based, or gist-based processing rather than in distinctive, item-specific, or verbatim processing (eastward.thou., Smith and Hunt, 1998; Brainerd and Reyna, 2002; McCabe et al., 2004). Our results betoken that participants with a strong PST may accept engaged in a familiarity-based or gist-based strategy rather than in a recollection or verbatim processing during the free recall task. This higher reliance on familiarity leads participants to falsely recall critical lures. This is consequent with the idea that under threat, participants may rely more on global, heuristic, or automatic processes than on analytic and controlled processes (Mazerolle et al., 2012). This strategy is quite maladaptive in the false memory context simply is particularly effective when trying to recall studied words from DRM lists. Indeed, with regards to correct recalls, our results showed that pedagogy is the only predictor of participants' performance; the more educated they are, the more than they recall previously studied words. This positive effect of teaching is consequent with previous research showing that teaching, every bit a major component of cognitive reserve, is a protective factor against the decline of cognitive abilities in aging (east.g., Nyberg and Pudas, 2019; Clouston et al., 2020). However, when MMSE total score was controlled for, it became the only pregnant predictor of correct recalls, offsetting the consequence of education. In addition, we showed a strong positive correlation between MMSE total score and the proportion of correct recalls. These results are consistent with previous studies that accept highlighted the positive relationship between MMSE total score and episodic memory functioning (east.g., Taylor et al., 1992; Aartsen et al., 2002). Our results likewise pointed to a positive correlation between MMSE full score and education. This is consequent with previous studies showing that higher levels of pedagogy are associated with better cognitive functioning (east.g., Crum, 1993; Albert et al., 1995; but come across Bleecker et al., 1988) or that didactics is a practiced predictor of the MMSE total score (e.thou., Bertolucci et al., 1994). Finally, we highlighted a significant negative correlation betwixt age and education level which is consequent with previous studies showing that earlier born cohorts of adults received less instruction than those born afterward (due east.m., Matthews et al., 2012).
Reverse to our expectations and to previous inquiry, our results did not bear witness whatever effect of a perceived of stereotype threat either on right recalls (e.thousand., Hess et al., 2009; Barber and Mather, 2013b; Armstrong et al., 2017) or on fake memories (Thomas and Dubois, 2011; Smith et al., 2017). I explanation might be that, in contrast with previous studies, nosotros did non use a blatant stereotype threat induction using brusk texts describing cerebral and memory declines in aging. To exist closer to natural situations of memory assessments, nosotros chose to assess participants' PST naturally occurring in a testing state of affairs. Our participants reported scores of PST as high as those reported by the participants in Gaillard et al. (2011) who underwent an experimental stereotype threat induction. Equally participants were informed both in the consent form and in the instructions that the experiment was nearly memory, i cannot rule out the possibility that this constitutes a subtle induction of stereotype threat (Nguyen and Ryan, 2008; Marquet et al., 2016). Another explanation may lie in the fact that nosotros used a DRM associated with a complimentary recollect task that, despite our specific instructions regarding the retrieve task, may have elicited a promotion focus in our participants. Since it has been argued that the stereotype threat induces a prevention focus (run across Hairdresser, 2017), the lack of regulatory fit may have led to these results. However, our study did not directly address the regulatory focus theory since we did not manipulate nor assess promotion or prevention foci in our participants. Future enquiry using subtle induction of stereotype threat would benefit from investigating this issue further.
In decision, this study showed that an age-based stereotype threat may naturally occur under testing situations in adults aged betwixt lx and lxx and affect their susceptibility to false memories. The present study also highlighted the central part of pedagogy in the evaluation of retentivity in older adults. While it predicted correct recalls, information technology also moderated the furnishings of PST on fake memories. These results encourage more consideration of the teaching level equally a study variable in research on aging, and not but as a simple controlled variable.
Information Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made bachelor by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics Argument
Ethical review and approval was non required for the study on human being participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this report.
Author Contributions
A-LG, CE, and FC contributed to conception and design of the written report. J-MG conducted the statistical analyses. A-LG wrote the first draft of the manuscript. CE, FC, and J-MG provided comments on the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision and read and canonical the submitted version.
Conflict of Involvement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed equally a potential disharmonize of interest.
Acknowledgments
We thank Manon Bonneau, Soukaina Hasnaoui, Tiphaine Housty, Marine Morillon, and Michèle Taridec for their assistance in recruitment and information collection. Nosotros as well thank Johana Desbordes for early on discussions on this topic. These data were presented at the 59th almanac meeting of the Psychonomic Society.
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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/606249
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